Heat and Thermodynamics

Related Resources: heat transfer

Heat and Thermodynamics

Engineering Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics

Heat and Thermodynamics
Mark W. Zemansky, Ph.D
Professor of Physics, Emcritus

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The study of any special branch of physics starts with a separation of a restricted region of space or a finite portion of matter from its surroundings. The portion which is set aside (in the imagination) and on which the attention is focused is called the system, and everything outside the system which has a direct bearing on its behavior is known as the surroundings. When a system has been chosen, the next step is to describe it in terms of quantities that will be helpful in discussing the behavior of the system or its interactions with the surroundings, or both. There are in general two points of view that may be adopted, the macroscopic point of view and the microscopic point of view.

Let us take as a system the contents of a cylinder of an automobile engine. A chemical analysis would show a mixture of hydrocarbons and air before explosion, and after the mixture has been ignited there would be combustion products describable in terms of certain chemical compounds. A statement of the relative amounts of these substances is a description of the composition of the system. At any moment, the system whose composition has just been described occupies a certain volume, depending on the position of the piston. The volume can be easily measured and, in the laboratory, is recorded automatically by means of an appliance coupled to the piston. Another quan- tity that is indispensable in the description of our system is the pressure of the gases in the cylinder. After explosion this pressure is large; after exhaust it is small. In the laboratory, a pressure gauge may be used to measure the changes of pressure and to make an automatic record as the engine operates. Finally, there is one more quantity without which we should have no ade- quate idea of the operation of the engine. This quantity is the temperature; as we shall see, in many instances, it can be measured just as simply as the other quantities.

TOC

Chapter 1 Temperature 1-1 Macroscopic Point of View 1 -2 Microscopic Point of View 1-3 Macroscopic vs. Microscopic 1-4 Scope of Thermodynamics 1-5 Thermal Equilibrium 1-6 Temperature Concept 1-7 Measurement of Temperature 1-8 Comparison of Thermometers 1-9 Gas Thermometer 1-10 Ideal-gas Temperature 1-11 Celsius Temperature Scale 1-12 Electric Resistance Thermometry 1-13 Thermocouple 1-14 International Practical Temperature Scale Chapter 2 Simple Thermodynamic Systems 2-1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 2-2 PV Diagram for a Pure Substance 2-3 P8 Diagram for a Pure Substance

Chapter 3 Work 3-1 Work 3-2 Quasi-static Process 3-3 Work of a Hydrostatic System 3-4 • PV Diagram 3-5 Work Depends on the Path 3-6 Work in Quasi-static Processes 3-7 Work of a Wire, a Surface Film, and a Reversible Cell 3-8 Work in Changing the Magnetization of a Magnetic Solid 3-9 Summary 3-10 Compound Systems

Chapter 4 Heat and the First Law 4-1 Work and Heat 4-2 Adiabatic Work 4-3 Internal-energy Function 4-4 Mathematical Formulation of the First Law 4-5 Concept of Heat 4-6 Differential Form of the First Law 4-7 "Heat Capacity and Its Measurement 4-8 Heat Capacity of Water; The Calorie 4-9 Equations for a Hydrostatic System 4-10 Quasi-static Flow of Heat; Heat Reservoir 4-11 Heat Conduction 4-12 Thermal Conductivity 4-13 Pleat Convection 4-14 Thermal Radiation; Blackbody 4-15 Kirchhoff's Law; Radiated Heat 4-16 Stcfan-Boltzmann Law

Chapter 5 Ideal Gases 5-1 Equation of State of a Gas 1 1 1 5-2 Internal Energy of a Gas 1 1 5 5-3 Ideal Gas 119 5-4 Experimental Determination of Heat Capacities 122 5-5 Quasi-static Adiabatic Process 124 5-6 Clement and Desormcs Method of Measuring y 126 5-7 Riichhardt's Method of Measuring y 128 5-8 Modifications of Riichhardt's Method 130 5-9 Speed of a Longitudinal Wave 1 32

Chapter 6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas 6-1 The Microscopic Point of View 145 6-2 Equation of State of an Ideal Gas 147 6-3 Distribution of Molecular Velocities 153 6-4 Maxwellian Speeds and Temperature 157 6-5 Equipartition of Energy 161

Chapter 7 Engines, Refrigerators, and the Second Law 7-1 Conversion of Work into Heat, and Vice Versa 166 7-2 The Stirling Engine 1 68 7-3 The Steam Engine 171 7-4 Internal Combustion Engines 173 7-5 Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law 177 7-6 The Refrigerator 179 7-7 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements 185

8-1 Reversibility and Irreversibility 8-2 External Mechanical Irreversibility 8-3 Internal Mechanical Irreversibility 8-4 External and Internal Thermal Irreversibility 8-5 Chemical Irreversibility 8-6 Conditions for Reversibility 8-7 Existence of Reversible Adiabatic Surfaces 8-8 Integrability of dQ