Related Resources: instrumentation

Handbook of Instruments Automation and Sensors

Engineering Applications and Design
Manufacturing Engineering
Instrumentation, Sensors and Automation

Handbook of Instruments Automation and Sensors
2226 Pages

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Open: Instrument and Automation Handbook of Sensors

This book describes the sensors and detectors used in the measurement of process variables used in automation and machines.

Humans cannot measure anything in the absolute. We can only compare measurement values generated by different devices. Therefore, the accuracy of any sensor is a function of the precision of the reference it was calibrated against.

TOC

1 General Considerations 1
1.1 Accuracy and Rangeability 4
1.2 Binary Logic Diagrams 15
1.3 Calibration 27
1.4 Configuring Intelligent Field Devices 35
1.5 Evaluation of Instrument Quality 56
1.6 Instrument Installation 65
1.7 Redundant and Voting Systems 84
1.8 Soft Sensors 107
1.9 Terminology for Automation and Testing 119
1.10 Uncertainty: Estimation, Propagation, and Reporting 151

2 Flow Measurement 159
2.1 Flowmeter Selection 167
2.2 Applications: Abrasive, Corrosive, Slurry 205
2.3 Applications: Bidirectional Flowmeters 211
2.4 Applications: Multiphase and Subsea Flowmeters 221
2.5 Applications: Multiphase Hydrocarbon Metering 235
2.6 Calibration and Maintenance 246
2.7 Installation 261
2.8 Anemometers 270
2.9 BTU Flow Measurement: Fuel Gas 279
2.10 BTU Flow Measurement: Liquids 284
2.11 Cross-Correlation Flowmetering 290
2.12 Elbow Flowmeters 299
2.13 Flow Switches 306
2.14 Laminar Flowmeters 317
2.15 Magnetic Flowmeters 326
2.16 Mass Flowmeters: Coriolis 346
2.17 Mass Flowmeters: Indirect and Turbine 364
2.18 Mass Flowmeters: Thermal 371
2.19 Metering Pumps 384
2.20 Oil-Custody Transfer 394
2.21 Orifices 412
2.22 Paddle Flow Switches 437
2.23 Pitot and Area-Averaging Tubes 445
2.24 Positive-Displacement Gas Meters 460
2.25 Positive-Displacement Liquid Meters and Provers 469
2.26 Purge Flow Regulators 482
2.27 Segmental Wedge Flowmeter 486
2.28 Sight Flow Indicators 492
2.29 Solids Flowmeter and Feeder 500
2.30 Target Meters 525
2.31 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 531
2.32 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 550
2.33 Variable Area, Gap, and Vane Flowmeters 567
2.34 Venturi, Proprietary Tubes, and Flow Nozzles 578
2.35 Vortex and Fluidic Flowmeters 593
2.36 V-Shaped Cone Flow Elements 606
2.37 Weirs and Flumes for Open Channels 612

3 Level Measurement 621
3.1 Selection of Level Detectors 627
3.2 Installation Considerations 648
3.3 Applications: Interface, Foam, Boiling Services 653
3.4 Applications: Non-Contacting, Non-Penetrating 660
3.5 Applications: Tank Gauges for Oil and Gas 665
3.6 Applications: Water Level Measurement in Nuclear Reactors 680
3.7 Bubblers 686
3.8 Capacitance and Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance 697
3.9 Conductivity and Field-Effect Level Switches 715
3.10 Diaphragm Level Detectors 720
3.11 Differential Pressure Level Detectors 727
3.12 Displacer Type Level Detectors 748
3.13 Float Level Devices 762
3.14 Laser Level Sensors 773
3.15 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 782
3.16 Magnetostrictive Level Transmitters 798
3.17 Microwave Level Switches 804
3.18 Optical and IR Level Switches 811
3.19 Radar: Contact Level Sensors (TDR, GWR, and PDS) 816
3.20 Radar: Non-Contacting Level Sensors 825
3.21 Radiation Level Sensors 835 3.22 Resistance Tapes 855
3.23 Rotary Paddle Switches (Solids Level Detector) 863
3.24 Tank Farm Gauges for Liquids and Solids 868
3.25 Thermal Dispersion Level Sensors 880
3.26 Ultrasonic Level Detectors 884
3.27 Vibrating Level Switches 897

4 temperature Measurement 901
4.1 Selection of Temperature Sensors 905
4.2 Applications: Cryogenic Temperature Measurement 936
4.3 Applications: High Temperature 942
4.4 Bimetallic Thermometers 965
4.5 Calibrators and Simulators 971
4.6 Cones, Crayons, Labels, Paints, and Pellets 977
4.7 Filled-Bulb and Glass-Stem Thermometers 983
4.8 Integrated Circuitry (IC), Transistors and Diodes 997
4.9 Miscellaneous Temperature Sensors 1003
4.10 Optical Fiber Thermometers (OFT) 1012
4.11 Radiation Pyrometers: Infrared (IR), Total, and Optical 1022
4.12 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) 1040
4.13 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 1055
4.14 Thermistors 1067
4.15 Thermocouples 1078
4.16 Thermowells 1108
4.17 Ultrasonic Thermometers 1125

5 Pressure Measurement 1131
5.1 Selection of Pressure Detectors 1134
5.2 Accessories (Seals, Snubbers, Calibrators, Manifolds) 1145
5.3 Bellows Elements and Barometers 1159
5.4 Bourdon and Helical Pressure Sensors 1166
5.5 Diaphragm or Capsule Elements 1171
5.6 Differential Pressure Instruments 1178
5.7 Electronic Pressure Sensors 1192
5.8 High-Pressure Sensors 1208
5.9 Manometers 1214
5.10 Pneumatic Repeaters and Boosters 1226
5.11 Pressure and Differential Pressure (D/P) Switches 1232
5.12 Pressure Gauges 1242
5.13 Pressure Scanners 1252
5.14 Vacuum Sensors 1259

6 Density Measurement 1275
6.1 Selection of Density Detectors 1278
6.2 Displacement and Float-Type Densitometers 1293
6.3 Gas Densitometers 1301
6.4 Hydrometers 1313
6.5 Hydrostatic Densitometers 1317
6.6 Oscillating Densitometers (Coriolis) 1326
6.7 Radiation Densitometers 1333
6.8 Ultrasonic Sludge Slurry Densitometers 1343
6.9 Vibrating Densitometers 1347
6.10 Weighing Densitometers 1356

7 Miscellaneous sensors 1361
7.1 Building Optimization Sensors 1367
7.2 Electric Energy Management: Demand Shedding 1383
7.3 Electric Meters 1389
7.4 Machine Vision Technology 1406
7.5 Metal Detectors 1413
7.6 Noise Sensors and Nondestructive Testing 1419
7.7 Nuclear Reactor Measurements 1429
7.8 Pipe Integrity Gauges (PIGs) 1443
7.9 Position Measurement, Linear and Angular 1458
7.10 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 1471
7.11 Solar Collector Positioning 1484
7.12 Tachometers and Angular Speed Detectors 1490
7.13 Thickness and Dimension Measurement 1499
7.14 Torque and Force Measurement 1508
7.15 Transportation Related Sensors 1520
7.16 Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration 1537
7.17 Visual Inspection Tools, Borescopes 1556
7.18 Weather Stations 1562
7.19 Weight Detectors Load Cells 1574
7.20 Weighing Systems 1606

8 Safety Sensors 1627
8.1 Annunciators and Alarms Management 1632
8.2 Electrical and Intrinsic Safety 1660
8.3 Excess Flow and Regular Check Valves 1677
8.4 Explosion Proofing of Instrumentation 1685
8.5 Explosion Suppression and Deluge Systems 1712
8.6 Flame Arrestor, Conservation and Emergency Vents 1722
8.7 Flame, Fire, and Smoke Detectors 1733
8.8 Nuclear Accidents 1743
8.9 Nuclear Radiation Detectors 1765
8.10 Oil Industry Accidents 1779
8.11 Relief Valves: Determination of Required Capacity 1802
8.12 Relief Valves: Sizing, Specification, and Installation 1825
8.13 Rupture Discs 1858

9 transmitters 1873
9.1 Transmitters: Electronic 1875
9.2 Transmitters: Fiber-Optic 1894
9.3 Transmitters: Pneumatic 1907
9.4 Transmitters: Smart, Multivariable 1922
9.5 Transmitters: Wireless 1933

Appendix 1941
A.1 Definitions 1943
A.2 Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols 1990
A.3 Organizations 2010
A.4 Flowsheet and Functional Diagrams Symbols 2013
A.5 Conversion among Engineering Units 2060
A.6 Chemical Resistance of Materials 2097
A.7 Composition and Properties of Metallic and Other Materials 2120
A.8 Steam and Water Tables 2127
A.9 Friction Loss in Pipes 2135
A.10 Tank Volumes 2141